SYLLABUS FOR BIOINSTRUMENTATION - SCANNING
DEPARTMENT OF MICROBIOLOGY
BIOINSTRUMENTATION – 23UMBE21
Course Outcomes:
CO1 Relate the facts, ideas and need of equipment’s in the field of molecular analysis (K1)
CO2 Explain the theoretical skills behind the usage of biomedical instruments (K2)
CO3 Understand the basic principles and types of analytical techniques in medical diagnosis
(K2)
CO4 Apply the knowledge about the applications of radioactivity and its measurements in
biomolecules identification, separation as well as imaging techniques (K3)
CO5 Compare the efficacy and make use of modern techniques to rectify the problem in an
efficient way (K3)
UNIT I
Basic instruments: pH meter, Centrifuge- Preparative, Analytical and Ultra, Laminar Air Flow,
Autoclave, Hot Air Oven and Incubator. Buffers- Phosphate, Acetate, TE, TAE. Biological
importance of buffers. (12 Hours)
UNIT II
Spectroscopic Techniques: Colorimeter, Ultraviolet and visible, Infrared and Mass Spectroscopy.
(12 Hours)
UNIT III
Chromatographic and Electrophoresis Techniques: Chromatographic Techniques: Paper, Thin
Layer and Column. Electrophoresis Techniques: AGE, PAGE (12 Hours)
UNIT IV
Imaging techniques: Principle, Instrumentation and application of ECG, EEG, EMG, MRI, CT
and PET scan radioisotopes. (12 Hours)
UNIT V
Fluorescence and radiation based techniques: Spectrofluorimeter, Flame photometer,
Scintillation counter, Geiger Muller counter, Autoradiography. (12 Hours)
Text Books
1.Palanivelu, P., (2004). Analytical Biochemistry & Separation Techniques, 4th edition –
Madurai: 21st Century Publication.
2. Jayaraman J (2011). Laboratory Manual in Biochemistry, 2 nd Edition. Wiley Eastern Ltd.,
New Delhi.
3 Veerakumari, L (2009).Bioinstrumentation- 5 th Edition -.MJP publishers.
2
4 Upadhyay, Upadhyay and Nath (2002). Biophysical chemistry – Principles and techniques 3 rd
Edition. Himalaya publishing home.
5 Chatwal G and Anand (1989). Instrumental Methods of Chemical Analysis. S.Himalaya
Publishing House, Mumbai.
References Books
1. Ponmurugan. P and Gangathara PB (2012). Biotechniques.1 st Edition. MJP publishers.
2. Rodney.F.Boyer (2000). Modern Experimental Biochemistry, 3 rd Edition. Pearson
Publication.
3 Skoog A.,WestM (2014). Principles of Instrumental Analysis – 14 th Edition W.B.Saunders
Co.,Philadephia.
4 N. Gurumani. (2006). Research Methodology for biological sciences- 1 st Edition – MJP
Publishers.
5 Wilson K, and Walker J (2010). Principles and Techniques of Biochemistry and Molecular
Biology.7 th Edition. Cambridge University Press.
6 Webster, J.G. (2004). Bioinstrumentation- 4 th Edition - John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pvt.
Ltd, Singapore.
Web Resources
1 http://www.biologydiscussion.com/biochemistry/centrifugation/centrifugeintroduction-
types- uses-and-other-details-with-diagram/12489
2 https://www.watelectrical.com/biosensors-types-its-working-andapplications/
3 http://www.wikiscales.com/articles/electronic-analytical-balance/ Page 24 of 75
4 https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-chromatography-definition-typesuses.html
5 http://www.rsc.org/learn-chemistry/collections/spectroscopy/introduction
SCANNING - TYPES
Magnetic
resonance imaging
magnetic resonance
imaging instrument (MRI scanner), or "nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) imaging" scanner as
it was originally known, uses powerful magnets to polarize and excite hydrogen nuclei (i.e., single protons) of water molecules in human tissue, producing a detectable signal
which is spatially encoded, resulting in images of the body.[5] The MRI machine emits a radio frequency (RF) pulse at
the resonant frequency of the hydrogen atoms on water molecules. Radio
frequency antennas ("RF coils") send the pulse to the area of the
body to be examined. The RF pulse is absorbed by protons, causing their direction
with respect to the primary magnetic field to change. When the RF pulse is
turned off, the protons "relax" back to alignment with the primary
magnet and emit radio-waves in the process. This radio-frequency emission from
the hydrogen-atoms on water is what is detected and reconstructed into an
image. The resonant frequency of a spinning magnetic dipole (of which protons
are one example) is called the Larmor frequency and is determined by the strength of the
main magnetic field and the chemical environment of the nuclei of interest. MRI
uses three electromagnetic
fields: a very strong (typically
1.5 to 3 teslas) static magnetic field to polarize the
hydrogen nuclei, called the primary field; gradient fields that can be modified
to vary in space and time (on the order of 1 kHz) for spatial encoding,
often simply called gradients; and a spatially homogeneous radio-frequency (RF) field for manipulation of the
hydrogen nuclei to produce measurable signals, collected through an RF antenna
1. CT Scan:
§ CT scans use a
series of x-rays to create cross-sections of the inside of the body, including
bones, blood vessels, and soft tissues.
§ What to expect: You
will lie on a table that slides into the scanner, which looks like a large
doughnut. The x-ray tube rotates around you to take images.
§ Duration: 10-15
minutes
§ Imaging Method:
ionizing radiation
§ Used to diagnose:
injuries from trauma; bone fractures; tumors and cancers; vascular disease;
heart disease; infections; used to guide biopsies
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2. MRI:
§ MRIs use magnetic
fields and radio waves to create detailed images of organs and tissues in the
body.
§ What to expect: You
lie on a table that slides into the MRI machine, which is deeper and narrower
than a CT scanner. The MRI magnets create loud tapping or thumping noises.
§ Duration: 45
minutes – 1 hour
§ Imaging Method:
magnetic waves
§ Used to diagnose:
aneurysms; Multiple Sclerosis (MS); stoke; spinal cord disorders; tumors; blood
vessel issues; joint or tendon injuries
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Nuclear medicine
Nuclear medicine
encompasses both diagnostic imaging and treatment of disease, and may also be
referred to as molecular medicine or molecular imaging and therapeutics.[11] Nuclear medicine uses certain properties of isotopes
and the energetic particles emitted from radioactive material to diagnose or
treat various pathology. Different from the typical concept of anatomic
radiology, nuclear medicine enables assessment of physiology. This
function-based approach to medical evaluation has useful applications in most
subspecialties, notably oncology, neurology, and cardiology. Gamma cameras and PET scanners are used in e.g. scintigraphy, SPECT and
PET to detect regions of biologic activity that may be associated with a
disease. Relatively short-lived isotope, such as 99mTc is administered to
the patient. Isotopes are often preferentially absorbed by biologically active
tissue in the body, and can be used to identify tumors or fracture points in bone. Images are acquired after collimated photons are
detected by a crystal that gives off a light signal, which is in turn amplified
and converted into count data.
Fiduciary markers are used
in a wide range of medical imaging applications. Images of the same subject
produced with two different imaging systems may be correlated (called image
registration) by placing a fiduciary marker in the area imaged by both systems.
In this case, a marker which is visible in the images produced by both imaging
modalities must be used. By this method, functional information from SPECT or positron
emission tomography can be
related to anatomical information provided by magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI).[14] Similarly, fiducial points established during MRI can
be correlated with brain images generated by magnetoencephalography to localize the source of brain activity.
1.
PET Scan:
§ PET scans use
radioactive drugs (called tracers) and a scanning machine to show how your
tissues and organs are functioning.
§ What to expect: You
swallow or have a radiotracer injected. You then enter a PET scanner (which
looks like a CT scanner) which reads the radiation given off by the
radiotracer.
§ Duration: 1.5 – 2
hours
§ Imaging Method:
radiotracers
§ Used to diagnose:
cancer; heart disease; coronary artery disease; Alzheimer’s Disease; seizures;
epilepsy; Parkinson’s Disease
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Use in pharmaceutical
clinical trials
Medical imaging has become a
major tool in clinical trials since it enables rapid diagnosis with
visualization and quantitative assessment.
A typical clinical
trial goes through multiple phases and can take up to eight
years. Clinical endpoints or outcomes are used to
determine whether the therapy is safe and effective. Once a patient reaches the
endpoint, he or she is generally excluded from further experimental
interaction. Trials that rely solely on clinical
endpoints are very costly as they have long durations and tend to
need large numbers of patients.
In contrast to clinical
endpoints, surrogate endpoints have been shown to cut
down the time required to confirm whether a drug has clinical benefits.
Imaging biomarkers (a characteristic that is objectively
measured by an imaging technique, which is used as an indicator of
pharmacological response to a therapy) and surrogate endpoints have shown to
facilitate the use of small group sizes, obtaining quick results with good
statistical power.[33]
Imaging is able to reveal
subtle change that is indicative of the progression of therapy that may be
missed out by more subjective, traditional approaches. Statistical bias is
reduced as the findings are evaluated without any direct patient contact.
Imaging techniques such
as positron emission tomography (PET)
and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
are routinely used in oncology and neuroscience areas,.[34][35][36][37] For
example, measurement of tumour shrinkage
is a commonly used surrogate endpoint in solid tumour response evaluation. This
allows for faster and more objective assessment of the effects of anticancer
drugs. In Alzheimer's disease, MRI scans
of the entire brain can accurately assess the rate of hippocampal atrophy,[38][39] while
PET scans can measure the brain's metabolic activity by measuring regional
glucose metabolism,[33] and
beta-amyloid plaques using tracers such as Pittsburgh compound B (PiB). Historically less
use has been made of quantitative medical imaging in other areas of drug
development although interest is growing.[40]
An imaging-based trial will
usually be made up of three components:
1.
A realistic imaging protocol. The protocol is an outline that
standardizes (as far as practically possible) the way in which the images are
acquired using the various modalities (PET, SPECT, CT, MRI). It covers the specifics in
which images are to be stored, processed and evaluated.
2.
An imaging centre that is responsible for collecting the images,
perform quality control and provide tools for data storage, distribution and
analysis. It is important for images acquired at different time points are
displayed in a standardised format to maintain the reliability of the
evaluation. Certain specialised imaging contract research organizations provide
end to end medical imaging services, from protocol design and site management
through to data quality assurance and image analysis.
3.
Clinical sites that recruit patients to generate the images to
send back to the imaging centre.
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